CPU, Processor this brain of the personal computer. He solves all general computing problems and agrees work to memories, видеоадаптера, disc drives and other component of the system. The Processor this необычайно complex microcircuit, being connected on majority personal computer to maternal charge directly, but sometimes installed and on affiliated charge, which, in turn, is connected to maternal by means of specialized slot.

Device of the processor

The Processor concerns with performing the programs, including both code of the most operating system, and code of user applications. With standpoint of the processor, the program presents itself whole only group low-level instruction, which are executed more or less on measure of their reception consecutively. Efficiency and rationality of the execution instruction are defined by internal device of the processor his(its) architecture. The Architecture with his(its) clockrate (the velocity) defines the speed of the execution instruction different types. The External interfaces of the processor define the send rate to information between processor and external кэшем, operative memory, чипсетом and the other component of the system.

The Clockrates increase since each year, but laws physicists limit the speed a processor. If developers tried to raise power, raising one only clockrate, processors already long ago reached limit of their own possibilities. Fortunately, parallel with clockrate improved and internal architecture processor. The Modern processors work at clockrates, in 600 once exceeding clockrate of the processor Intel 8088, which was fixed in the first computers IBM PC/XT, but power Intel them above in 5000 and more once.

Processors Intel

First generation

The First processor, uncared-for Intel in mass production, was released under number 8086. His(its) external bus was 16-ti class, either as internal presentation data. This processor began be used at the end 70-h in specialized system of the processing text and миникомпьютерах of the type Display Writer and System/23 DataMaster. In 1981 IBM has released the first personal computer, in which was used processor 8088, presented by itself variant 8086 with 16-class internal presentation data and 8-class external bus. In that time 8-class external device were more available and cost more cheaply, than their 16-class analogues. On processor 8088 and 8086 were not a mathematical coprocessor though his(its) possible was buy and install apart, (the coprocessor was released under number 8087). The Processors Intel first generation are still used in some device, but as processor of the general-purpose they already have long ago grown old.

Second generation

In 1982 Intel has declared about issue долгожданного second generation processor. The Processor 80286 on kernel iAPX-32 was a qualitative horse race onward. He executed the commands in five times faster, than processor 808х with the same clockrate. The Volume addressed memories increased with 1 Mbyte before 16 Mbytes. Appeared the possibility of the work in protected mode. The First commercial realization computer IBM PC/AT became on the base 80286.Though processor 80286 long ago already does not aspire to the role of processor of the general-purpose, he is still used in built-in controller.

Third generation

The Processors Intel following generation дебютировали in 1985году under number 80386.Впоследствии this number grew shorter before 386.Это was first completely 32- class processor Intel moreover 32-class were both bus data, and bus adresa.386-y processor worked at clockrates 16,20,25и33 MHZ. The Processor 386 has long ago grown old as processor of the general-purpose, but he still it is enough is broadly used in built-in controller.

Fourth generation

The Following generation processor Intel came up for 1989 under code name 486(processora80486 was not never). 486-y presented itself completely 32-class processor with volume кэша L1 8 Kbytes, built-in coprocessor and clockrates from 20 before 50МГц. The Company Intel released the variants 486DX 486SX.Single practically acceptable way to modernizations of the system on the base 486-go processor - a change her(it) on new.

Fifth generation

The Appearance of the processor Intel Pentium has signified receipts of the fifth generation processor personal computer. His(its) capacity much exceeds the possibility a predecessor (486) due to some improvements of the architecture, in the first place increase the width of the bus given with 32 before 64 categories and increase the clockrate of the bus to memories with 33до 60 and 66 MGC. Company Intel were released several versions of the processor Pentium:

1. Pentium P54.Первый variant Pentium began to be on sale in 1993 in three variants (50,60 and 66 MHZ with multiplier 1,0) , run on voltage 5,0 В, had a double cache L1(8+8 Kbyte) and was fixed on maternal charge with сокетом Socket 4.
2. Pentium P54C. Classical Pentium came up for 1994, worked at clockrates from 75 before 200 MHZ with multiplier from 1,5 before 3,0 and voltage of the feeding 3,3 V. On he имелся such double cache L1, either as on P54.Процессоры P54C are fixed on maternal charge Socket 5 and Socket 7.
3. Pentium P55C.The Processor Pentium/MMX was released in 1997, supported the clockrates from 166 before 233 MHZ, multipliers from 2,5 before 3,5,voltage of the feeding 3,3В. His(its) double cache first level (16+16 Kbyte) double exceed on volume cache first processor Pentium. The Other change from P54C was concluded in appearance of the set instruction MMH, which vastly accelerated processing graphs. The Processors R55S are fixed on maternal charge Socket 7

In Pentium is also provided buffer of the branching (buffer, branch target), used for dynamic prediction of the branching that very raises efficiency of the execution instruction. Finally, there is controller систесмой in Pentium, which can adjust the consumption to powers itself processor and peripheral component.

Though sometimes MMH decipher as MultiMedia eXtensions or Matrix Match eXtensions, Intel officially declares that abbreviation MMH does not mean nothing. This set from 57 additional instructions, intended for more efficient processing the sound, video and graphs SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data one instruction, much given)- architectral improvement, allowing execute one and too action with greater set sister data.

Joint use technology MMH and SIDM has vastly enlarged the possibility Pentium in respect of parallel execution operation up to processing eight bytes for tact instead of one.

Sixth generation

The Sixth generation appeared in 1995, when was declared about creation Pentium Pro. Hereto, the generation pertain the processors Intel such as Pentium 2, Celeron, Pentium 3.

The First processor Intel sixth generation, intended for broad circle of the consumers, was identified Pentium 2. He was released at May 1997. Subsequently Intel has released the ensemble a variant Pentium 2, differring friend from friend by external performance, type and volume кэша L2, used by kernel and range of the clockrates of the external bus. All representatives family Pentium 2 use technology of the dynamic execution (Dynamic Execution Technology) and DIB-architecture. Pentium 2 were made on the base kernel Deschutes, which worked at clockrates 350, 400 and 450 MHZ (under external clockrate 100 MHZ). These processors use the cache second level by volume 512 Kbytes, working at clockrate, twice as little internal frequency of the processor. The Processors Pentium 2 are packed in картридж SECCили SECC2 (Single-Edge Contact Connector) together with кэшем L2.

Processors Celeron

Iznachalino Celeron presented itself cheap variant Pentium 2, but more later models Celeron are, in turn, cheap alternative Pentium 3 and Pentium 4.У processor Celeron with kernel Coppermine 128 halfs кэша second level by volume 256 Kbytes are disconnected that gives standard for class Celeron 128 Kbytes. Unlike Pentium 3 with kernel Coppermine uses 4-outside assotiative algorithm of the caching. All processors Celeron with kernel Coppermine 128 up to Celeron 766,which began to be on sale at November 2000, worked with clockrate of the external bus 66 MHZ. At March 2001 have begun to be on sale the new processors Celeron, calculated to external clockrate 100 MHZ. They have filled the range of the frequencies 800-1100 MHZ. The Processors Celeron c kernel Coppermine 128 support all functions Pentium III with kernel Coppermine, including SSE.Differ they only volume and type кэша L2, frequency of the external bus and absence of official support of the multiprocessor deskside.

Intel has made five main variants Celeron in four variants body, on the base four different ядер, with two clockrates of the external bus, on четырем technology and with more than twenty different internal clockrates. The Main differences between these processor сведены in table.

Kernel	Covington	Mendocino	Coppermine 128	Coppermine 128	Tualatin
Form factor	SECC	SECC-2 PPGA	FC-PGA	FC-PGA	FC-PGA2
Years	1998	1998-2000	2000-	2001-	2001-
Clockrates (MHZ)	266,300	300А, 333, 366, 400, 433, 466, 500, 533	500А, 533А, 566, 600, 633, 667, 700, 733, 766	800,	1,200
Volume L2		128 Кбайт	128 Кбайт	128 Кбайт	256 Кбайт
Width of the bus L2		64 бит	256 бит	256 бит	256 бит
Clockrate of the system bus	66 МГц	66 МГц	66 МГц	100 МГц	100 МГц
Technology of the fabrication	0,35 мкм	0,25 мкм	0,18 мкм	0,18 мкм	0,13 мкм

Processor Pentium 3

Pentium 3, the last processor of the sixth generation Intel, has entered in sale at February 1999. He was made in ensemble variant with internal frequency from 450 MHZ before 1,33МГц, the forms- factor SECC, SECC2, FC-PGA and FC-PGA2, external clockrates 100 and 133 MHZ, kernel Katmai, Coppermine and Tualatin.

The most modern models Pentium III are founded on kernel Tualatin, these processors are made on technologies 0,13 мкм, size of the microcircuit decrease due to that, comsumed power and cost, but possible clockrates vastly increase in contrast with Coppermine,

The Processors Tualatin work at clockrate of the external bus 133 MHZ and are made in two variants moreover both variants are performed in form factor FC-PGA2 (with built-in distributor of the heat). The Forerunner is intended for desktops, contains the standard built-in cache second level by volume 256 Kbytes. The Second model, is calculated on use in дншевых server and workstation, contains the cache L2 volume 512 Kbytes. Both support SMP.

Seventh generation

Processor Pentium 4

At the end 2000 corporations Intel happened to firmly to break the head on established situation. At March of the same year corporation AMD got free onward in competition with Intel, having released processor Athlon, worked at clockrate 1 GGC. Intel planned to release the model its leading processor Pentium 3 with kernel Coppermine and clockrate 1 GGC well after. The Announcement about creation Athlon/1,0 GGC was an alarm signal for Intel. Intel it is necessary was release Pentium 3/1,0 GGC immediately if she did not want to leave the clockrates from racing. Intel has even so released Pentium 3 with magic frequency 1,0 GGC. However problem remained. The Frequency 1,0 GGC were an actual limit of the possibilities for kernel Coppermine then Athlon Thunderbird could else grow and grow. Intel could avoid increasing backlog in clockrates two ways. Possible, there was accelerate the issue Pentium 3 with kernel Tualatin. Made on technologies 0,13 мкм, possibility which in respect of increasing of the frequencies to say the least did not yield Athlon with kernel Thunderbird and Palomino, or quickly tax on the market processor seventh generation Pentium 4. Intel was absolutely not ready production to translation on technology 0,13 мкм for fabrication Pentium 3 with kernel Tualatin so single real variant remained the quick issue Pentium 4.

Possibilities of the processor Pentium 4

1. Giperkonveyernaya processing (Hyper Pipelined Technology). The Depth of the conveyor in contrast with Pentium 3 was increased double. For instance, section of the prediction of the branching and recovering the conveyor (branch prediction/recovery) consists of 20 stages. The Long conveyor-mutual меч. Use of such conveyor allows to reach very high clockrates, however herewith for one tact can be executed smaller amount instruction.
2. The Improvement prediction branching. The Depth of the conveyor Pentium 4 has required the modernizations of the block of the prediction of the branching (Branch Prediction Unit - BPU) since under low quality of this block processor with deep conveyor simply not was able productive to work. Under big length of the conveyor his(its) stop brings about loss enormous amount tact, but block of the prediction of the branching allows this avoid.
3. The Cache of the tracking the execution first level (Level 1 Execution Trace Cache). Aside from standard кэша given first level by volume 8 Kbytes in Pentium 4 there is specialized cache L1 volume 12 Kbytes. In this cache fit the decoded микроинструкции in that order, in which they will be executed. Efficiency of keeping and capacity increase due to the fact that decoded микроинструкции delete from the main of the cycle of the execution, but is kept only that instructions, which may need. Keshiruya instructions before that, as they take, cache of the tracking and execution guarantees that block of the execution seldom to come to wait the receptions of the commands, but damage from wrong prediction and execution is minimized.
4. The Block of the quick execution (Rapid Execution Engine). Even with the most best block of the prediction and execution целочисленные instructions with greater probability bring about mistake of the prediction, than operations with sailling point, but mistakes of the prediction disastrous influence upon reception capacity. To reduce their harmful influence, in Pentium 4 is provided two arithmetics-logical device, which work at frequency, double exceeding internal clockrate of the processor.
5. The System bus with frequency 400 and 533 MHZ. The System bus Pentium 4 the most quick from all, when - or used in desktops. Though real bus works at frequency 100 or 133 MHZ, for one tact is sent 4 bits on each channel (this is identified fourfold pumping) that gives the efficient clockrate 400 or 533 MHZ.

The Cache with raised by reception capacity. In processor Pentium 4 is used not lockable 8-outside assotiative algorithm of the caching. The Processors Pentium 4 with kernel Willamette contains the cache L2 volume 256 Kbytes, but Pentium 4 with kernel Northwood 512 Kbytes.

Models of the processor Pentium 4

The Processors Pentium 4 are made Intel on the base two ядер: Willamette, technology 0,18 мкм, and Northwood, technology 0,13 мкм, - and in two forms factor: 423-contact PGA-423 and smaller on size 478-contact mPGA-478. The Processors with kernel Willamette were made both in the forms factor PGA-423, and in mPGA-478 and had a clockrates 1,30, 1,40, 1,50, 1,60, 1,70, 1,80, 1,90 and 2,0 GGC. On they were fixed the cache L2 volume 256 Kbytes. The Processors Pentium 4 with kernel Northwood are made only in one form factor - mPGA-478. The Clockrates these processor begin with 2 and 2,20 GGC.

Processor Celeron 4

At May 2002 Intel has released in sale Celeron on the base Pentium 4. Their name Celoron 4. They are made in standard form factor mPGA-478 and are fixed the maternal charge with connector Socket 478. The Volume кэша beside they form 128 Kbytes that is to say in two less, than beside normal Pentium 4. The First tests have shown that Celeron 4 even with clockrate 1,7 GGC outstrips the most quick from имевшихся models AMD Duron, there is suggestion that future models Celeron 4 will become the excellent central to quick and cheap systems on platform Intel 845G and 845GL.

Difference Intel and AMD

To understand the contradictions between 64-битными by decisions from AMD and Intel, it is important to realize that command architecture h86 distant from perfection. Modern h86 processors топчутся on place due to restrictions h86 architectures basically. The Reason that market itself. Under this architecture what only is not designed. In spite of the fact that processors Intel Itanium use the new command system, will pass much years, previously than she spreads. And even new technology unaccented increased layers (Bumpless Buildup Layer, BBUL) from Intel has not yet ripened, but research subdivision Intel prevents the development AMD. The Ithaca, with standpoint of technologies, AMD will not be able to create the processors with high clockrate, except most kernel of the processor since, on frequency renders the influence an ensemble different factor. For this AMD will not get the whole infrastructure available beside Intel. So AMD will not be able to follow the example Intel with her(its) Pentium 4.

Author: А. V. Savin It Is Added: 29.04.2007